Spiral Matrix

The problem

Given an m-by-n matrix filled with integers, return all elements of the matrix in a clockwise spiral order starting from the top-left corner.

The matrix is not a path to trace. It is a set of concentric rectangles. Reading clockwise means peeling the outermost rectangle, then the next one inward, and so on. Four boundary pointers are all the state needed; nothing else varies.

Full solution

Boundary pointers peeling layers: four edges shrink inward after each side is read, so every cell is emitted exactly once with O(1) extra space and no visited set; the two guards stop a leftover single row or column from being read twice.

def spiral_order(matrix: list[list[int]]) -> list[int]:
    out: list[int] = []
    top, bottom = 0, len(matrix) - 1
    left, right = 0, len(matrix[0]) - 1
    while top <= bottom and left <= right:
        for c in range(left, right + 1):
            out.append(matrix[top][c])
        top += 1
        for r in range(top, bottom + 1):
            out.append(matrix[r][right])
        right -= 1
        # a single remaining row/column has already been read above
        if top <= bottom:
            for c in range(right, left - 1, -1):
                out.append(matrix[bottom][c])
            bottom -= 1
        if left <= right:
            for r in range(bottom, top - 1, -1):
                out.append(matrix[r][left])
            left += 1
    return out

function spiralOrder(matrix) {
  const out = [];
  let top = 0, bottom = matrix.length - 1;
  let left = 0, right = matrix[0].length - 1;
  while (top <= bottom && left <= right) {
    for (let c = left; c <= right; c++) out.push(matrix[top][c]);
    top++;
    for (let r = top; r <= bottom; r++) out.push(matrix[r][right]);
    right--;
    // a single remaining row/column has already been read above
    if (top <= bottom) {
      for (let c = right; c >= left; c--) out.push(matrix[bottom][c]);
      bottom--;
    }
    if (left <= right) {
      for (let r = bottom; r >= top; r--) out.push(matrix[r][left]);
      left++;
    }
  }
  return out;
}

The theory behind it

Matrix — the ground this problem stands on. All Matrix problems

What Matrix is

A matrix is a flat grid of cells laid out in rows and columns, like a checkerboard or a spreadsheet. Each cell has an address made of two numbers: its row index going down and its column index going across. Because computer memory stores these rows one after another or as arrays of arrays, jumping straight to any individual cell takes the same tiny fraction of time no matter where it sits on the board.

When to reach for it

Reach for matrix techniques when the input is a two-dimensional grid, board, or map. Common prompts include walking through a maze, finding connected islands of land in water, rotating an image ninety degrees in place, or reading numbers in a spiral. Words like rows, columns, neighbors, adjacent squares, or diagonal lines are clear signs. It also appears in grid planning where each cell depends on the values above and to the left.

How the pattern works

Think of navigating the grid using directional coordinate offsets. Define row and column step arrays for moving up, down, left, and right. Always check that new row and column indices stay strictly between zero and the board boundaries before reading cell values. For spiral scans, track four boundary lines for top, bottom, left, and right, shrinking them inward after reading each side. When searching connected regions, mark visited cells directly or write a marker value into the cell to avoid looping.

What each operation costs

Which roles need this problem

Matrix is a core topic for these 10 roles — if you're targeting one of them, this problem is early in your path, not optional.

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